The myth of harmless wrongs in moral cognition: Automatic dyadic completion from sin to suffering

Gray, K., Schein, C., & Ward, A. F. (2014).

Journal of experimental psychology.

General, 143(4), 1600–1615.

https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036149

Abstract

When something is wrong, someone is harmed. This hypothesis derives from the theory of dyadic morality, which suggests a moral cognitive template of wrongdoing agent and suffering patient (i.e., victim). This dyadic template means that victimless wrongs (e.g., masturbation) are psychologically incomplete, compelling the mind to perceive victims even when they are objectively absent. Five studies reveal that dyadic completion occurs automatically and implicitly: Ostensibly harmless wrongs are perceived to have victims (Study 1), activate concepts of harm (Studies 2 and 3), and increase perceptions of suffering (Studies 4 and 5). These results suggest that perceiving harm in immorality is intuitive and does not require effortful rationalization. This interpretation argues against both standard interpretations of moral dumbfounding and domain-specific theories of morality that assume the psychological existence of harmless wrongs. Dyadic completion also suggests that moral dilemmas in which wrongness (deontology) and harm (utilitarianism) conflict are unrepresentative of typical moral cognition.

A pdf is here.

Here are some thoughts:

This research paper explores the psychological theory of dyadic morality, which posits that our moral cognition is structured around a template of a wrongdoing agent and a suffering patient (victim). The authors argue that this dyadic template leads to an automatic and implicit process called "dyadic completion," where individuals perceive victims and harm even in situations considered objectively harmless wrongs. Across five studies, the researchers found that ostensibly harmless immoral acts are indeed perceived as having victims, activate concepts related to harm, and increase perceptions of suffering. This suggests that the perception of harm is fundamental to our intuitive understanding of immorality and challenges theories that assume the psychological reality of victimless wrongs, as well as standard interpretations of moral dumbfounding. The concept of dyadic completion also implies that moral dilemmas contrasting wrongness and harm might not reflect typical moral cognition.

How peer influence shapes value computation in moral decision-making

Yu, H., Siegel, J. et al. (2021).

Cognition, 211, 104641.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2021.104641

Abstract

Moral behavior is susceptible to peer influence. How does information from peers influence moral preferences? We used drift-diffusion modeling to show that peer influence changes the value of moral behavior by prioritizing the choice attributes that align with peers' goals. Study 1 (N = 100; preregistered) showed that participants accurately inferred the goals of prosocial and antisocial peers when observing their moral decisions. In Study 2 (N = 68), participants made moral decisions before and after observing the decisions of a prosocial or antisocial peer. Peer observation caused participants' own preferences to resemble those of their peers. This peer influence effect on value computation manifested as an increased weight on choice attributes promoting the peers' goals that occurred independently from peer influence on initial choice bias. Participants' self-reported awareness of influence tracked more closely with computational measures of prosocial than antisocial influence. Our findings have implications for bolstering and blocking the effects of prosocial and antisocial influence on moral behavior.

Here are some thoughts:

Peer influence plays a significant role in shaping how people make moral decisions. Rather than simply copying others, individuals tend to adjust the way they value different aspects of a moral choice to align with the goals and preferences of their peers. This means that observing others’ moral behavior-whether prosocial or antisocial-can shift the importance people place on certain outcomes, such as helping others or personal gain, during their own decision-making process. Computational models, like the drift diffusion model, show that these changes occur at the level of value computation, not just as a surface-level bias. Interestingly, people are generally more aware of being influenced by positive (prosocial) peers than by negative (antisocial) ones. Overall, the findings highlight that social context can subtly and powerfully shape moral values and behavior.

Therapist drift redux: Why well-meaning clinicians fail to deliver evidence-based therapy, and how to get back on track.

Waller, G., & Turner, H. (2015).

Behaviour Research and Therapy, 77, 129–137.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2015.12.005

Abstract

Therapist drift occurs when clinicians fail to deliver the optimum evidence-based treatment despite having the necessary tools, and is an important factor in why those therapies are commonly less effective than they should be in routine clinical practice. The research into this phenomenon has increased substantially over the past five years. This review considers the growing evidence of therapist drift. The reasons that we fail to implement evidence-based psychotherapies are considered, including our personalities, knowledge, emotions, beliefs, behaviours and social milieus. Finally, ideas are offered regarding how therapist drift might be halted, including a cognitive-behavioural approach for therapists that addresses the cognitions, emotions and behaviours that drive and maintain our avoidance of evidence-based treatments.

Highlights

• We consider the recent evidence that therapist drift is a common phenomenon in psychological therapies.

• We consider the reasons that therapist drift takes place.

• A cognitive-behavioural approach to overcoming therapist drift is outlined.

Here are some thoughts:

Therapist drift is when clinicians fail to deliver evidence-based treatments effectively, despite having the training and resources to do so.  This drift can occur consciously or unconsciously and results in patients receiving suboptimal care, reducing their chances of recovery.  Factors contributing to therapist drift include the therapist's knowledge, beliefs, emotions, personality, behaviors, and social environment.  Research indicates that therapist drift is a significant issue in delivering cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT).  To address therapist drift, strategies incorporating a cognitive-behavioral approach may be beneficial, targeting the beliefs, emotions, and behaviors that lead therapists away from evidence-based practices. 

Bounded ethicality and ethical fading in negotiations: Understanding unintended unethical behavior.

Rees, M., Tenbrunsel, A., & Bazerman, M. (2018).

Academy of Management Perspectives, 33(1), 26–42.

https://doi.org/10.5465/amp.2017.0055

Abstract

The business scandals of the past several decades have led to the rising importance of ethics as a topic central to management scholarship. Behavioral scientists in particular have been attracted to the topic in far greater numbers, and the study of ethical decision making has emerged as a core subfield (Messick & Tenbrunsel, 1996). This paper draws on that framework and applies it to negotiations, arguing that not all unethical behavior is intentional; rather, negotiators fall prey to bounded ethicality, engaging in behavior that is contradictory to their values without realizing that they are doing so. We further argue that ethical fading—when individuals do not see the ethical implications of the situation or their action—is central to explaining why this occurs. Relying on past empirical research, we identify negotiation cues that have been linked to unethical behavior, and explore how they make a negotiator particularly vulnerable to ethical fading, resulting in subsequent unethical behavior. We discuss several opportunities for future research in the negotiation discipline and other disciplines that draw on motivated social exchange or assume intentionality, and conclude with a call for scholars to define normative standards as they pertain to negotiator ethics.

A pdf of the article is here.

Here are some thoughts:

The article explores how ethical failures in organizations often result not from intentional wrongdoing, but from cognitive limitations and unconscious biases that restrict individuals’ ability to act ethically. The authors argue that even well-intentioned people routinely engage in unethical behavior without realizing it due to bounded awareness—where individuals fail to see or act on all relevant ethical information. Factors such as implicit biases, motivated blindness, and outcome bias distort judgment and decision-making, making unethical actions seem acceptable. The article calls for greater structural and organizational changes, rather than solely relying on individual character or compliance efforts, to address these hidden ethical failures and promote more ethical behavior.

Religion, Spirituality, and Suicide

Knapp, S. (2024, September 25).

Society for the Advancement of Psychotherapy.

Article Link is here.

When evaluating suicidal patients, it is often indicated to ask them about their religious beliefs about suicide because many patients believe that their spiritual or religious beliefs1 are closely linked to their mental health (Yamada et al., 2020). For example, some patients in significant emotional distress say they would not kill themselves because their religion strongly condemns it. For them, religion includes a life-protecting belief that prohibits them from attempting suicide.  

Nonetheless, the relationship between religion, spirituality, and suicide goes deeper than just prohibitions against suicide. Instead, religious and spiritual beliefs influence how people care for themselves, interact with others, think about themselves, and interpret their life histories. For example, some people have religious or spiritual beliefs that command them to live their lives productively, express their talents and abilities, and show love for others while experiencing joy. For them, religion includes life-promoting beliefs that encourage them to flourish and thrive. 

The goals for treating suicidal patients are to keep them alive and to help them create lives worth living. While life-protecting beliefs may help keep many patients alive (at least temporarily), life-promoting beliefs help keep patients alive and also help them to create lives worth living. This article suggests ways psychologists can encourage life-promoting beliefs when working with suicidal patients.

The entire article is here.

Here are some thoughts:

The article explores the complex relationship between religious and spiritual beliefs and suicide risk. It highlights that while religious affiliation and spiritual practices can offer protective benefits against suicidal ideation and behavior, the impact varies based on individual experiences and contexts. Positive religious coping mechanisms—such as finding meaning, community support, and hope—are associated with reduced suicide risk. Conversely, negative religious coping, including feelings of punishment or abandonment by a higher power, may exacerbate distress and increase risk. The article emphasizes the importance for mental health professionals to assess and integrate clients' spiritual and religious dimensions into therapy, tailoring interventions to support each individual's unique belief system.

Reconsidering Informed Consent for Trans-Identified Children, Adolescents, and Young Adults

Levine, S. B., Abbruzzese, E., & Mason, J. W. (2022).

Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy, 48(7), 706–727.

https://doi.org/10.1080/0092623x.2022.2046221

Abstract

In less than a decade, the western world has witnessed an unprecedented rise in the numbers of children and adolescents seeking gender transition. Despite the precedent of years of gender-affirmative care, the social, medical and surgical interventions are still based on very low-quality evidence. The many risks of these interventions, including medicalizing a temporary adolescent identity, have come into a clearer focus through an awareness of detransitioners. The risks of gender-affirmative care are ethically managed through a properly conducted informed consent process. Its elements—deliberate sharing of the hoped-for benefits, known risks and long-term outcomes, and alternative treatments—must be delivered in a manner that promotes comprehension. The process is limited by: erroneous professional assumptions; poor quality of the initial evaluations; and inaccurate and incomplete information shared with patients and their parents. We discuss data on suicide and present the limitations of the Dutch studies that have been the basis for interventions. Beliefs about gender-affirmative care need to be separated from the established facts. A proper informed consent process can both prepare parents and patients for the difficult choices that they must make and can ease professionals’ ethical tensions. Even when properly accomplished, however, some clinical circumstances exist that remain quite uncertain.

Here are some thoughts:

The article critiques the prevailing standards for obtaining informed consent in the context of gender-affirming medical interventions for minors and young adults. It argues that current practices often fail to adequately ensure that patients—and in many cases, their guardians—fully understand the long-term risks, uncertainties, and implications of puberty blockers, cross-sex hormones, and surgeries. The authors contend that the developmental immaturity of children and adolescents, combined with social pressures and sometimes incomplete psychological evaluations, undermines the ethical validity of consent. They advocate for a more cautious, evidence-informed, and ethically rigorous approach that prioritizes psychological exploration and long-term outcomes over immediate affirmation and medical intervention.

Core communitarian values for community practice: human development, empowerment, and social justice

James Anderson. (2024).

Technology Journal of Management,

Accounting and Economics, 12(4).

Link Here.

Abstract

Values are conceptions of good which enlighten and guide human analysis and action. Discounting noteworthy exceptions, community psychology has neglected making explicit and openly discussing its ethical and value dimensions. My aim in this paper to partially remedy such neglect by posing new sustantive values and approaches suitable for community practice. I suggest first changes in the deontological values to adapt them to the complexity and dynamism of community work. So I put forward shared or collective autonomy, that extends self-direction to the whole community, to substitue for individual disolving autonomy. I also introduce self-care (legitimate self-beneficence) to guarantee psychological and moral integrity of the practitioner as well as long term sustainability of communiy action. I describe, secondly, some core communitarian values. Human development which includes interaction and social bonding besides self-direction. Empowerment, an instrumental value, made of subjective consciousness, communication, and effective social action. Social justice, the main socio-communitarian value, consist of three components: a vital universal minimum, fair distribution of material and psychosocial goods and resources produced by society, and igualitarian personal treatment and relationship.

Here are some thoughts: 

The article explores core communitarian values essential for effective community psychology practice, emphasizing the need to move beyond traditional deontological ethics toward a more socially grounded framework. It argues that community psychology has historically neglected explicit ethical discourse despite its intrinsic moral dimensions. To address this gap, the author proposes redefining autonomy as shared or collective autonomy , extending self-direction to the entire community rather than focusing solely on individuals. Additionally, self-care is introduced as a crucial value to sustain practitioners' psychological and moral integrity. The paper outlines three central socio-community values: human development , empowerment , and social justice . Human development integrates personal growth with social bonding, empowerment focuses on increasing individual and group capacity through awareness and action, and social justice is framed around three pillars—ensuring a vital minimum for all, equitable distribution of resources, and relational fairness. These values are intended to guide both ethical reflection and practical interventions in community settings.

How Does Therapy Harm? A Model of Adverse Process Using Task Analysis in the Meta-Synthesis of Service Users' Experience

Curran, J., Parry, G. D.,  et al. (2019).

Frontiers in Psychology, 10.

https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00347

Abstract

Background: Despite repeated discussion of treatment safety, there remains little quantitative research directly addressing the potential of therapy to harm. In contrast, there are numerous sources of qualitative evidence on clients' negative experience of psychotherapy, which they report as harmful.

Objective: To derive a model of process factors potentially leading to negative or harmful effects of therapy, from the clients' perspective, based on a systematic narrative synthesis of evidence on negative experiences and effects of psychotherapy from (a) qualitative research findings and (b) participants' testimony.

Method: We adapted Greenberg (2007) task analysis as a discovery-oriented method for the systematic synthesis of qualitative research and service user testimony. A rational model of adverse processes in psychotherapy was empirically refined in two separate analyses, which were then compared and incorporated into a rational-empirical model. This was then validated against an independent qualitative study of negative effects.

Results: Over 90% of the themes in the rational-empirical model were supported in the validation study. Contextual issues, such as lack of cultural validity and therapy options together with unmet client expectations fed into negative therapeutic processes (e.g., unresolved alliance ruptures). These involved a range of unhelpful therapist behaviors (e.g., rigidity, over-control, lack of knowledge) associated with clients feeling disempowered, silenced, or devalued. These were coupled with issues of power and blame.

Conclusions: Task analysis can be adapted to extract meaning from large quantities of qualitative data, in different formats. The service user perspective reveals there are potentially harmful factors at each stage of the therapy journey which require remedial action. Implications of these findings for practice improvement are discussed.

Here are some thoughts:

The article offers important insights for psychologists into the often-overlooked negative impacts of psychotherapy. It emphasizes that, while therapy generally leads to positive outcomes, it can sometimes result in unintended harm such as increased emotional distress, symptom deterioration, or damage to self-concept and relationships. These adverse effects often arise from ruptures in the therapeutic alliance, misattunement, or a lack of responsiveness to clients’ feedback. The study highlights the importance of maintaining a strong, collaborative therapeutic relationship and recommends that therapists actively seek client input throughout the process. Regular supervision and training are also essential for helping clinicians recognize and address early signs of harm. Informed consent should include discussion of potential risks, and routine outcome monitoring can serve as an early detection system for negative therapy responses. Ultimately, this research underscores the ethical responsibility of psychologists to remain vigilant, self-reflective, and client-centered in order to prevent harm and ensure therapy remains a safe and effective intervention.

Relationship between empathy and burnout as well as potential affecting and mediating factors from the perspective of clinical nurses: a systematic review

Zhou H. (2025).

BMC nursing, 24(1), 38.

https://doi.org/10.1186/s12912-025-02701-0

Abstract

Background

Burnout is prevalent in healthcare professionals, especially among nurses. This review aims to examine the correlation between empathy and burnout as well as the variables that influence and mediate them.

Methods

This review follows the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guideline, to present a systematic evaluation of literature. A literature search of four electronic databases including CINAHL (EBSCO), EMBASE, PubMed, and Google Scholar was conducted from 2014 to 2024. A total of 1081 articles were identified in the initial search. After screening the title, abstract, and context of these articles, 16 eligible articles were finally included in this review.

Results

This review identified a number of factors related to empathy and burnout levels. The included studies showed consistent results that empathy and burnout were generally negatively related. When considering the different components of empathy or burnout independently, as well as the mediating factors involved, relations between empathy and burnout may alter.

Conclusions

This study provided an excellent summary of some important research on the mediating and affecting factors associated with burnout and empathy. These results can facilitate further

Here are some thoughts:

This systematic review found that higher empathy levels among clinical nurses are generally associated with lower burnout, although specific subcomponents of empathy influenced burnout dimensions differently.

While greater empathic concern and perspective-taking were linked to reduced depersonalization and increased personal accomplishment, high personal distress was correlated with greater emotional exhaustion.

Burnout prevalence varied across settings, with moderate levels common among Chinese nurses and high burnout rates observed in trauma and emergency care units in the U.S. and Spain. Factors such as female gender, specialty area, permanent employment, and fixed shifts were associated with higher empathy and lower burnout, whereas longer working hours and rural practice environments contributed to increased burnout. Organizational climate, coping strategies, job commitment, secondary traumatic stress, and workplace spirituality were important mediators. Overall, the findings emphasize the protective role of empathy against burnout and support interventions targeting workplace environment and personal coping to enhance nurse well-being.