Jackson, J. C., Halberstadt, J., et al.
(2023, March 22).
Abstract
Why do people assume that a generous person should also be honest? Why can a single criminal conviction destroy someone’s moral reputation? And why do we even use words like “moral” and “immoral”? We explore these questions with a new model of how people perceive moral character. According to this model, people can vary in the extent that they perceive moral character as “localized” (varying across many contextually embedded dimensions) vs. “generalized” (varying along a single dimension from morally bad to morally good). This variation might be at least partly the product of cultural evolutionary adaptations to predicting cooperation in different kinds of social networks. As networks grow larger and more complex, perceptions of generalized morality are increasingly valuable for predicting cooperation during partner selection, especially in novel contexts. Our studies show that social network size correlates with perceptions of generalized morality in US and international samples (Study 1), and that East African hunter-gatherers with greater exposure outside their local region perceive morality as more generalized compared to those who have remained in their local region (Study 2). We support the adaptive value of generalized morality in large and unfamiliar social networks with an agent-based model (Study 3), and experimentally show that generalized morality outperforms localized morality when people predict cooperation in contexts where they have incomplete information about previous partner behavior (Study 4). Our final study shows that perceptions of morality have become more generalized over the last 200 years of English-language history, which suggests that it may be co-evolving with rising social complexity and anonymity in the English-speaking world (Study 5). We also present several supplemental studies which extend our findings. We close by discussing the implications of this theory for the cultural evolution of political systems, religion, and taxonomical theories of morality.
General Discussion
The word“moral” has taken a strange journey over the last several centuries. The word did not yet exist when Plato and Aristotle composed their theories of virtue. It was only when Cicero translated Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics that he coined the term “moralis” as the Latin translation of Aristotle’s “ēthikós”(Online Etymology Dictionary, n.d.).It is an ironic slight to Aristotle—who favored concrete particulars in lieu of abstract forms—that the word has become increasingly abstract and all-encompassing throughout its lexical evolution, with a meaning that now approaches Plato’s “form of the good.” We doubt that this semantic drift isa coincidence.
Instead, it may signify a cultural evolutionary shift in people’s perceptions of moral character as increasingly generalized as people inhabit increasingly larger and more unfamiliar social networks. Here we support this perspective with five studies. Studies 1-2 find that social network size correlates with the prevalence of generalized morality. Studies 1a-b explicitly tie beliefs in generalized morality to social network size with large surveys. Study 2 conceptually replicates this finding in a Hadza hunter-gatherer camp, showing that Hadza hunter-gatherers with more external exposure perceive their campmates using more generalized morality. Studies 3-4 show that generalized morality can be adaptive for predicting cooperation in large and unfamiliar networks. Study 3 is an agent-based model which shows that, given plausible assumptions, generalized morality becomes increasingly valuable as social networks grow larger and less familiar. Study 4 is an experiment which shows that generalized morality is particularly valuable when people interact with unfamiliar partners in novel situations. Finally, Study 5 shows that generalized morality has risen over English-language history, such that words for moral attributes (e.g., fair, loyal, caring) have become more semantically generalizable over the last two hundred years of human history.