Law, K. F., et al. (2025, February 8).
PsyArXiv
Abstract
Humans can care about distant strangers, an adaptive advantage that enables our species to cooperate in increasingly large-scale groups. Theoretical frameworks accounting for an expansive moral circle and altruistic behavior are often framed as a dichotomy between competing pathways of emotion-driven empathy versus logic-driven reasoning. Here, in a pre-registered investigation comparing variations in empathy and reasoning capacities across different exceptionally altruistic populations –– effective altruists (EAs) who aim to maximize welfare gains with their charitable contributions (N = 119) and extraordinary altruists (XAs) who have donated organs to strangers (N = 65) –– alongside a third sample of demographically-similar general population controls (N = 176), we assess how both capacities contribute to altruistic behaviors that transcend conventional parochial boundaries. We find that, while EAs generally manifest heightened reasoning ability and XAs heightened empathic ability, both empathy and reasoning independently predict greater engagement in equitable and effective altruism on laboratory measures and behavioral tasks. Interaction effects suggest combining empathy and reasoning often yields the strongest willingness to prioritize welfare impartially and maximize impact. These results highlight complementary roles for empathy and reasoning in overcoming biases that constrain altruism, supporting a unified framework for expansive altruism and challenging the empathy-reasoning dichotomy in existing theory.
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This research challenges the traditional dichotomy between empathy and reasoning in altruistic behavior. Rather than viewing them as opposing forces, the study argues that both cognitive and emotional capacities contribute independently to altruistic actions that transcend parochial biases. To explore this, the researchers examined three groups: Effective Altruists (EAs), who emphasize reasoned decision-making to maximize the welfare impact of their charitable actions; Extraordinary Altruists (XAs), who have demonstrated extreme altruism by donating organs to strangers; and a demographically similar general population control group.
The findings reveal that EAs tend to exhibit stronger reasoning abilities, while XAs demonstrate heightened empathy. However, both cognitive and emotional capacities play crucial roles in fostering altruism that prioritizes impartial welfare and maximizes impact. This challenges the prevailing notion that empathy is inherently biased and ineffective in promoting broad, equitable altruism. Instead, the study suggests that empathy, when cultivated, can complement reasoning to enhance prosocial motivation. Furthermore, while XAs engage in altruistic behavior primarily driven by emotional responses, EAs rely more on deliberative reasoning. Despite these differences, both groups demonstrate a commitment to helping distant others, suggesting that there are distinct but overlapping pathways to altruism.
For psychologists and other mental health professionals, these findings have significant implications. Understanding the cognitive and emotional foundations of altruism can inform therapeutic interventions aimed at fostering prosocial behavior in individuals who struggle with social engagement, such as those with psychopathy or social anhedonia. Additionally, the research challenges assumptions about empathy, showing that it can be expanded beyond parochial biases, which is particularly relevant for training programs that aim to develop empathy in clinicians, social workers, and caregivers. The study also contributes to broader ethical and moral discussions about how to encourage compassionate and rational decision-making in fields such as healthcare, philanthropy, and policymaking. Ultimately, this research highlights the importance of integrating both empathy and reasoning in efforts to promote altruism, offering valuable insights for psychology, psychotherapy, and social work.