People's thinking plans adapt to the problem they're trying to solve

Ongchoco, J. D., Knobe, J., & Jara-Ettinger, J. (2024).

Cognition, 243, 105669.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2023.105669 

Abstract

Much of our thinking focuses on deciding what to do in situations where the space of possible options is too large to evaluate exhaustively. Previous work has found that people do this by learning the general value of different behaviors, and prioritizing thinking about high-value options in new situations. Is this good-action bias always the best strategy, or can thinking about low-value options sometimes become more beneficial? Can people adapt their thinking accordingly based on the situation? And how do we know what to think about in novel events? Here, we developed a block-puzzle paradigm that enabled us to measure people's thinking plans and compare them to a computational model of rational thought. We used two distinct response methods to explore what people think about—a self-report method, in which we asked people explicitly to report what they thought about, and an implicit response time method, in which we used people's decision-making times to reveal what they thought about. Our results suggest that people can quickly estimate the apparent value of different options and use this to decide what to think about. Critically, we find that people can flexibly prioritize whether to think about high-value options (Experiments 1 and 2) or low-value options (Experiments 3, 4, and 5), depending on the problem. Through computational modeling, we show that these thinking strategies are broadly rational, enabling people to maximize the value of long-term decisions. Our results suggest that thinking plans are flexible: What we think about depends on the structure of the problems we are trying to solve.

The research is here.

Some thoughts:

The study is based on the idea that people have "thinking plans" which are essentially roadmaps that guide our thoughts and actions when we are trying to solve a problem. These thinking plans are not static, but rather can change and adapt depending on the specific problem we are facing.

For example, if we are trying to solve a math problem, our thinking plan might involve breaking the problem down into smaller steps, identifying the relevant information, and applying the appropriate formulas. However, if we are trying to solve a social problem, our thinking plan might involve considering the different perspectives of the people involved, identifying potential solutions, and evaluating the consequences of each solution.

The study used computational modeling to simulate how people would solve different types of problems. The model showed that people's thinking plans were flexible and adapted to the specific problem at hand. The model also showed that these thinking plans were broadly rational, meaning that they helped people to make decisions that were in their best interests.

The findings of the study have important implications for education and other fields that are concerned with human decision-making. The study suggests that it is important to teach people how to think flexibly and adapt their thinking plans to different situations. It also suggests that we should not expect people to always make the "right" decision, as the best course of action will often depend on the specific circumstances.

3 Strategies for Making Better, More Informed Decisions

Francesca Gina

Harvard Business Review

Originally published 25 May 23

Here is an excerpt:

Think counterfactually about previous decisions you’ve made.

Counterfactual thinking invites you to consider different courses of action you could have taken to gain a better understanding of the factors that influenced your choice. For example, if you missed a big deadline on a work project, you might reflect on how working harder, asking for help, or renegotiating the deadline could have affected the outcome. This reflection can help you recognize which factors played a significant role in your decision-making process — for example, valuing getting the project done on your own versus getting it done on time — and identify changes you might want to make when it comes to future decisions.

The 1998 movie Sliding Doors offers a great example of how counterfactual thinking can help us understand the forces that shape our decisions. The film explores two alternate storylines for the main character, Helen (played by Gwyneth Paltrow), based on whether she catches an upcoming subway train or misses it. While watching both storylines unfold, we gain insight into different factors that influence Helen’s life choices.

Similarly, engaging in counterfactual thinking can help you think through choices you’ve made by helping you expand your focus to consider multiple frames of reference beyond the present outcome. This type of reflection encourages you to take note of different perspectives and reach a more balanced view of your choices. By thinking counterfactually, you can ensure you are looking at existing data in a more unbiased way.

Challenge your assumptions.

You can also fight self-serving biases by actively seeking out information that challenges your beliefs and assumptions. This can be uncomfortable, as it could threaten your identity and worldview, but it’s a key step in developing a more nuanced and informed perspective.

One way to do this is to purposely expose yourself to different perspectives in order to broaden your understanding of an issue. Take Satya Nadella, the CEO of Microsoft. When he assumed the role in 2014, he recognized that the company’s focus on Windows and Office was limiting its growth potential. Not only did the company need a new strategy, he recognized that the culture needed to evolve as well.

In order to expand the company’s horizons, Nadella sought out talent from different backgrounds and industries, who brought with them a diverse range of perspectives. He also encouraged Microsoft employees to experiment and take risks, even if it meant failing along the way. By purposefully exposing himself and his team to different perspectives and new ideas, Nadella was able to transform Microsoft into a more innovative and customer-focused company, with a renewed focus on cloud computing and artificial intelligence.

The info is here.

These are the Therapist Behaviors that are Helpful or Harmful

Christian Jarrett
Research Digest
Originally published November 23, 2017

Here is an excerpt:

The most helpful therapy moments involved specific treatment techniques, such as times the therapist gave the client a concrete strategy they could use in everyday life; instances when the therapist made connections for the client (such as identifying events that affected their depression symptoms); or helped them process their emotions. Other helpful moments involved fundamental therapist skills, such as listening and expressing empathy, offering support or praise, or when the therapist discussed the process of therapy, including what the client wants from it.

The clients said they found these moments helpful because they learned a new skill, felt heard or understood, gained insight and/or were better able to process their emotions.

In terms of hindering therapist behaviours, these often seemed the same, superficially at least, as the helpful behaviours, including instances when the therapist listened, attempted to express empathy, or attempted to structure the session. The difference seemed to be in the execution or timing of these behaviours. The clients said they found these moments unhelpful when they were off-topic (for instance, their therapist listened to them “rambling” on about irrelevant details without intervening); when they felt like they were being judged; or they felt it was too soon for them to confront a particular issue.

The article is here.

Dissed by Unhappy Patients? Here's What to Do

by Roger Sergel
Senior Executive Editor
MedPage Today Video
Originally posted January 04, 2017

Chimpanzee choice rates in competitive games match equilibrium game theory predictions

Christopher Flynn Martin, Rahul Bhui, Peter Bossaerts, Tetsuro Matsuzawa & Colin Camerer

Scientific Reports 4, Article number: 5182 (2014)

doi:10.1038/srep05182

Abstract

The capacity for strategic thinking about the payoff-relevant actions of conspecifics is not well understood across species. We use game theory to make predictions about choices and temporal dynamics in three abstract competitive situations with chimpanzee participants. Frequencies of chimpanzee choices are extremely close to equilibrium (accurate-guessing) predictions, and shift as payoffs change, just as equilibrium theory predicts. The chimpanzee choices are also closer to the equilibrium prediction, and more responsive to past history and payoff changes, than two samples of human choices from experiments in which humans were also initially uninformed about opponent payoffs and could not communicate verbally. The results are consistent with a tentative interpretation of game theory as explaining evolved behavior, with the additional hypothesis that chimpanzees may retain or practice a specialized capacity to adjust strategy choice during competition to perform at least as well as, or better than, humans have.

The entire article is here.

Insights for Writing a Code of Ethics or Conduct

Risk management, strategy, and analysis from Deloitte
via The Wall Street Journal

The heart of an organization is often expressed in its code of ethics or code of conduct. It tells the world what really matters to an organization and what it is all about. Companies that follow both the letter and the spirit of the law by taking a “value-based” approach to ethics and compliance may have a distinct advantage in the marketplace. Give the average employee a legalistic “thou shall not….” code, and a negative response is almost guaranteed. Give employees a document that states clearly and concisely the organization’s expectations, outlines acceptable behaviors and presents viable options for asking questions and voicing concerns, and the likelihood is much greater that they will meet those expectations and exhibit the desired behaviors. Make the contents of the code equally applicable to, and understood by, everyone in the organization—at all levels, across all business units and spanning the geographies—and you have a key ingredient for a code that becomes ingrained in the corporate culture, with all of the benefits.

The entire article is here.

Ethical dilemmas: A model to understand teacher practice

Ehrich, Lisa Catherine; Kimber, Megan; Millwater, Jan; Cranston, Neil

Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice, Vol 17(2), Apr 2011, 173-185.

Over recent decades, the field of ethics has been the focus of increasing attention in teaching. This is not surprising given that teaching is a moral activity that is heavily values-laden. Because of this, teachers face ethical dilemmas in the course of their daily work. 


This paper presents an ethical decision-making model that helps to explain the decision-making processes that individuals or groups are likely to experience when confronted by an ethical dilemma. In order to make sense of the model, we put forward three short ethical dilemma scenarios facing teachers and apply the model to interpret them. Here we identify the critical incident, the forces at play that help to illuminate the incident, the choices confronting the individual and the implications of these choices for the individual, organisation and community. 


Based on our analysis and the wider literature we identify several strategies that may help to minimise the impact of ethical dilemmas. These include the importance of sharing dilemmas with trusted others; having institutional structures in schools that lessen the emergence of harmful actions occurring; the necessity for individual teachers to articulate their own personal and professional ethics; acknowledging that dilemmas have multiple forces at play; the need to educate colleagues about specific issues; and the necessity of appropriate preparation and support for teachers. Of these strategies, providing support for teachers via professional development is explored more fully.